In this article we will discuss about the study of comparative genomics. All the genes of an organism are not functional. In different groups of organisms the percentage of functional genes varies. For example in bacteria 3-5 genes are non-functional, whereas in humans 97 % genes are non-functional. Besides, the level of evolutionary conservation of microbial proteins is rather uniform [...]
Based on activÂity, toxins are divided into three types: type I (that act the cell membrane), type II (that attack the cell membrane), and type III (that penetrate the memÂbrane to act inside the cell). 1. Membrane Transducing Toxins: These type of toxins are type I toxins which damage host cells by subtle means through inappropriate activation of cellular receptors. [...]
In this article we will discuss about the signalling mechanisms, both in eukaryotes and prokaryotes. 1. Eukaryotic Cell-to-Cell Signaling: The integrative nature of biological systems could be understood after the pioneering work of Claude Bernard (1813-1878) of France. He gave the concept of the miliew interieur and suggested the system of ductless gland (i.e. endocrine glands) for integrating function and [...]