Here is a list of thirty-five thallophytes found in fungi:- 1. Synchytrium 2. Saprolegnia 3. Phytophtora 4. Albugo 5. Peronospora 6. Mucor 7. Rhizopus 8. Cunninghamella 9. Saccharomyces 10. Aspergillus 11. Penicillium 12. Peziza 13. Aleuria 14. Ascobolus 15. Geoglossum 16. Phyllactinia 17. Daldenia 18. Xylaria 19. Neurospora 20. Polyporus 21. Schizophyllum 22. Stereum 23. Clavaria and a few others.
1. Synchytrium:
Somatic Structure:
Thallus is unicellular and holocarpic. Cells are localized within the infected host tissues. At the time of reproduction, cells function as sporangium or gametangium. All the reproductive structures are invested by a common membrane to form a sorus.
Reproductive Structure:
Sporangium:
It is somewhat elliptical and composed of several spores formed by cleavage of protoplast.
Resting Sporangium:
It is thick-walled zygotic body, ultimately becoming thick-walled resting sporangia (Fig 3.1).
Identification:
Asexual reproduction by spores borne in sporangia, sexual reproduction resulting in the formation of zygospore.
CLASS: PHYCOMYCETES (PHYCOMYCOTINA)
Mycelium absent, thallus holocarpic.
SUB CLASS: ARCHIMYCETES
Thallus unicellular and holocarpic.
ORDER: CHYTRIDIACEAE
Zoosporangium thick-walled, zoospores produced by cleavage, resting zygotic sporangium thick-walled.
FAMILY: SYNCHYTRIACEAE
Obligate parasite, cells found within the infection zones of the tuber of potato.
GENUS: SYNCHYTRIUM
2. Saprolegnia:
Somatic Structure:
The thallus is mycelial type and mycelium is composed of tufts of aseptate hyphae.
The somatic (PHYCOMYCOTINA) hyphae consist of:
(i) Branched rhizoidal portion embedded in the nutritive matrix serving the purposes of anchorage and absorption of nourishment and
(ii) Profusely branched hyphae lying outside the substratum forming cottony growth being visible even to the naked eye. The vegetative hyphae are coenocytic with tapering branch tips. Septa appear only at the base of the reproductive organs.
Reproductive Structure:
Zoosporangium:
It is terminal in position formed by the modification of hyphal tips. It is elongated, clavate and produces a number of zoospores inside.
Antheridium:
It is also slender, coenocytic hyphal tip modification. Usually the same hyphae produces oogonium also.
Oogonium:
It is terminal or intercalary on main or lateral branches. It is spherical or oval and formed singly or in pairs. They contain one to many oospores
Oospheres:
These are formed within the fertilised oogonium, oospores are smooth walled (Fig 3.2).
Identification:
Thallus mycelial type, mycelium aseptate, asexual spores formed within zoosporangium, oospore formed sexually.
CLASS: PHYCOMYCETES (PHYCOMYCOTINA)
Mycelium well-developed, reproductive parts separated from vegetative parts by cross-walls, gametongia morphologically distinguishable as male and female.
SUB CLASS: OOMYCETES
Mycelium-branched, coenocytic and forming a dense tuft, oospores are one to several in each oogonium.
ORDER: SAPROLEGNIALES
Thallus-branched, coenocytic, aseptate, sporangium cylindrical, terminal.
FAMILY: SAPROLEGNIACEAE
Zoosporangium terminal, clavate and tapering, oogonium somewhat spherical to oval. Antheridium long and slender.
GENUS: SAPROLEGNIA
3. Phytophthora:
Somatic Structure:
The thallus is composed of branched, non-septate, hyaline somatic mycellium. The hyphae are localised in both intracellular and inter-cellular position and each producing rudimentary haustoria. The superficial somatic hyphae produce abundant sporangiophores.
Reproductive Structure:
Sporangiophore:
Sporangiophore is sympodially branched at maturity and produces sporangia laterally. It is very little differentiated from the somatic hyphae.
Sporangium:
It is thin-walled, lemon-shaped with an apical papilla.
Oospore:
It is thick-walled, spherical and develops singly in each oogonium. It is formed by the union of antheridium and oogonium arranged in amphigynous manner (Fig 3.3).
Identification:
Thallus mycelial type, mycelium aseptate, asexual spores formed with sporangium, oospore formed sexually.
CLASS: PHYCOMYCETES (PHYCOMYCOTINA)
Mycelium well-developed, thallus eucarpic, reproductive parts separated from vegetative parts by transverse walls, gametongia morphologically distinguishable as male and female, oospore present.
SUB CLASS: OOMYCETES
Oospore one in each oogonium.
ORDER: PERONOSPORALES
Sporangia developed laterally on the sympodially branched sporangiophore; sporangiophores very little differentiated from somatic hyphae.
FAMILY: PYTHIACEAE
Mature sporangium thin-walled, lemon-shaped with an apical papilla, fusion of antheridium and oogonium is of amphigynous type.
GENUS: PHYTOPHTHORA
4. Albugo:
Somatic Structure:
The thallus possesses very fine coenocytic, aseptate mycelium which is strictly intercellular. Small globular haustoria, developed from the hyphae piercing the host cell-wall. The hyphae ramify along the intercellular spaces and collect beneath the epidermis, branch profusely and after maturity produce numerous, short, club-shaped sporangiophores arranged in a palisade-like layer at right angles to the host epidermis.
Reproductive Structure:
Sporangiophore:
It is short, club-shaped and arranged in a palisade-like layer, which is situated just beneath the epidermis of host.
Sporangium:
They are borne on the sporangiophore in a row and mature in basipetal succession. In between sporangia, there is presence of disjuncture. Each sporangium looks like an elliptical thick-walled ball. The sporangia are produced simultaneously in chains on each sporangiophore so that on rupture of epidermal covering, there is a bulged, white, blister-like appearance on the leaf surface (Fig 3.4).
Oospore:
It is formed singly in each oogonium after fertilisation. It is roundish, thick-walled, reticulate surfaced structure.
Identification:
Thallus mycelial-type, mycelium aseptate, spore formed within sporangia, oospore formed sexually.
CLASS PHYCOMYCETES: (PHYCOMYCOTINA)
Gametangia morphologically distinguishable as male and female. Oospore present.
SUB CLASS: OOMYCETES
Mycelium well-developed, thallus eucarpic, oospore one in each oogonium.
ORDER: PERONOSPORALES
Sporangiophores clearly different from the somatic hyphae with determinate growth, sporangia formed in chains on sporangiophores in dense sori.
FAMILY: ALBUGINACEAE
Plant body very fine coenocytic mycelial type, sporangia abstracted from the tips of the sporangiophores in basipetal succession.
GENUS: ALBUGO
5. Peronospora:
Somatic Structure:
The thallus is composed of coenocytic, branched mycelium which develops along the intercellular space of the host tissue producing haustoria. The haustoria are short and knob-like or filamentous and branched.
Reproductive Structure:
Sporangiophore:
It is dichotomously branched and projected from the host-tissue, mostly through stomata covering the greenish part of the host with a dense white growth, called “downy mildew”.
Sporagium:
They are borne singly at the acute, more or less reflexed tips of the branched sporangiophores. Each sporangium appears elliptical to globose, blunt, without any apical papilla. They are hyaline or light-coloured.
Oospore:
It is thick-walled and somewhat spherical. It is formed by the union of antheridium and oogonium. Each oogonium has one oospore with periplasm (Fig 3.5).
Identification:
Thallus mycelial type, mycelium aseptate, spore formed within sporangia, oospore formed sexually.
CLASS: PHYCOMYCETES (PHYCOMYCOTINA)
Gametangia morphologically distinguishable as male and female gametangia.
SUB CLASS: OOMYCETES
Thallus eucarpic, oospore one in each oogonium.
ORDER: PERONOSPORALES
Sporangiophores branched and distinct from somatic hyphae, sporangia some-what elliptical and without papillae.
FAMILY: PERONOSPORACEAE
Sporangiophore with sporangia projected through the stomata of the host-tissue and thereafter covering the green part of the host with a dense white growth called downy mildew.
GENUS: PERONOSPORA
6. Mucor:
Somatic Structure:
The thallus is white cottony mycelial type. Mycelium is profusely branched and aseptate. They form both aerial and sub-aerial mycelia. The aerial mycelium produces copious hyphae which ramify over the surface of the substratum. Mycelium is coenocytic and hyaline.
Reproductive Structure:
Asexual Sporangiophore:
It arises from aerial mycelium and each one is terminated by a spherical sporangium. Sporangiophore is un-branched.
Sporangium:
Each sporangium has a central dome-shaped sterile zone called columella, which is overarched by sporangiospores.
Sporangiospores:
They are unicelluler, non-mobile, globose to oval in shape.
Zygospore:
It is somewhat spherical to rounded, thick-walled and warty resting reproductive structure formed by the fusion of iso-gametangia. Gametangia are club-shaped (Fig 3.6).
Identification:
Thallus mycelial-type, mycelium aseptate, spores formed within sporangia, oospore formed sexually.
CLASS: PHYCOMYCETES (PHYCOMYCOTINA)
Zygospore formed by the union of iso-gametangia.
SUB CLASS: ZYGOMYCETES
Mycelium well-developed, thallus eucarpic, gametangia morphologically non-distinguishable into male and female sporangiospores present.
ORDER: MUCORACES
Mycelium thread like-both aerial and sub-aerial type, sporangiospores formed within globose sporangium, zygospore spiny or warty.
FAMILY: MUCORACEAE
Sporangium formed on un-branched sporangiophore, sporangiophore borne singly, sporangium with distinct collumella, zygospore formed by iso-gametangial copulation.
GENUS: MUCOR
7. Rhizopus:
Somatic Structure:
The thallus is mycelial type. It is composed of numerous, slender, branched and aseptate hyphae. There are two kinds of hyphae-aerial hyphae producing stolons and sporangiophores and prostrate hyphae producing rhizoids.
Reproductive Structure:
Sporangiophore:
It is un-branched and arises in tufts from the aerial mycelium. It is terminated by sporangium.
Sporangium:
It is small, round and black. Each sporangium has a conspicuous dome-shaped columella, overarched by sporangiospores.
Zygospore:
It is dark coloured, rounded and thick-walled. Its surface is worthy. It is formed by the fusion of two similar gametangia (Fig 3.7).
Identification:
Thallus mycelial type, mycelium aseptate, spores formed within sporangia, oospore formed sexually.
CLASS: PHYCOMYCETES (PHYCOMYCOTINA)
Gametangia morphologically not distinguishable as male and female, zygospore-formed by gametangial copulation, asexual reproduction by sporangiospores.
SUB CLASS: ZYGOMYCETES
Asexual reproduction by sporangiospores formed within sporangium.
ORDER: MUCORALES
Sporangiospores liberated by breaking of sporangial wall.
FAMILY: MUCORACEAE
Presence of conspicuous stolon forming aerial mycelium, sporangiophores formed in tufts from the stoloniform aerial mycelium.
GENUS: RHIZOPUS
8. Cunninghamella:
Somatic Structure:
The vegetative hyphae are coenocytic, branched and are differentiated into erect and prostrate portions. The erect vegetative hyphae are transformed into more or less branched, sometimes septate conidiophores.
Reproductive Structure:
Conidiophore:
Each conidiophore is terminated in a capitate vesicle covered with sterigmata bearing conidia. The nature of branching of the conidiophores is extremely variable-cymose to racemose.
Conidium:
Conidia are small, echinulate, unicellular, globose to oval or pyriform deciduous conidia.
Zygospore:
Zygospore wall is rough and formed by iso-gametangial copulation (Fig 3.8).
Identification:
Thallus mycelial type, mycelium aseptate, spores or conidia formed asexually.
CLASS: PHYCOMYCETES (PHYCOMYCOTINA)
Gametangia morphologically not distinguishable as male and female, zygospore formed by gametangial copulation.
SUB CLASS: ZYGOMYCETES
Asexual reproduction by sporangiospores or conidia borne on conidiophore.
ORDER: MUCORALES
Unicellular conidium covering terminal capitate enlargement of the branch of the conidiophore.
FAMILY: CHOANEPHORACEAE
Conidiophore terminated in a capitate vesicle covered with sterigmata bearing small, echinulate, unicellular, globose to oval conidia.
GENUS: CUNNINGHAMELLA
9. Saccharomyces:
Somatic Structure:
Thallus is unicellular and cells usually remain attached in short chains forming a pseudo-mycelium. The shape of the cells varies from globose to oval to elongate. Cells are hyaline and contain granular cytoplasm, within which there is a large vacuole and a nucleus. In addition, cytoplasm contains oil globules and other granular reserve materials. Cell size ranges from 2 – 8 µm in width by 3 – 15 µm in length.
Reproductive Structure:
Budding:
It is commonly seen in mature yeast cells, where young cells are formed on mature parent cells as bulges and are gradually enlarged. Finally young buds become mature and get detached from the parent cell (Fig 3.9).
Ascospore:
It is formed directly within conjugating cell. They are mostly 8 in number.
Identification:
Hyphae septate, sexual reproduction not resulting in the formation of resting spore. Presence of sac-like ascus with endogenously formed ascospores, asexual reproduction mostly by conidia.
CLASS: ASCOMYCETES (ASCOMYCOTINA)
Asci are naked and formed singly, absence of ascogenous hyphae or ascocarp.
SUB CLASS: PROTOASCOMYCETES
Asci formed directly from the zygote, budding conspicuous.
ORDER: ENDOMYCETALES
Asci bearing one to eight ascospores.
FAMILY: SACCHAROMYCETACEAE
Unicellular fungi, globose to oval in shape, cells having a large vacuole, a conspicuous nucleus and granulated cytoplasm.
GENUS: SACCHAROMYCES
10. Aspergillus:
Somatic Structure:
The mycelium is colourless or pale or bright, coloured and composed of profusely branched septate hyphae. Cells of hyphae are multinucleate.
Reproductive Structure:
Conidiophore:
It is un-branched and arising from aerial mycelium. The tip of the conidiophore is bulged into a vesicle. From the margin of the vesicle, conidia develop in rows on sterigmata. The sterigmata may be primary or primary and secondary. Conidiophore is measuring 350 – 400 µm in length and 4-8 µm in breadth. The vesicles have 40 – 45 µm in diameter.
Conidium:
It is spherical and matures basipetally. Conidia are somewhat echinulate. Conidia are measuring 3 – 7 µm in diameter.
Ascocarp:
Mature thallus produces sub-aerial, rounded and smooth-walled cleistothecium type of ascocarp (eurotium). Asci are scattered at various level within the cleistothecia. Each cleistothecium is of 100 – 350 µm in diameter with asci of 10 – 12 µm length and ascospores of 3 – 5 µm dia. (Fig 3.10).
Identification:
Hyphae septate, sexual reproduction by gametangial copulation, presence of sac-like ascus with endogenously formed ascospores, asexual reproduction by conidia.
CLASS: ASCOMYCETES (ASCOMYCOTINA)
Asci produced from ascogenous hyphae and enclosed in well-developed ascocarps.
SUB CLASS: EUASCOMYCETES
Asci scattered within the ascocarp, ascocarp a cleistothecium
SERIES PLECTOMYCETES:
Presence of cleistothecia type of ascocarp, asci scattered within the cleistothecia, ascocarp without appendages.
ORDER: EUROTIALES
Presence of sub-aerial ascocarp (cleistothecium), mature conidia echinulate.
FAMILY: EUROTIACEAE
Presence of un-branched conidiophore with bulged vesicle from which conidia are produced in chains on sterigmata.
GENUS: ASPERGILLUS
11. Penicillium:
Somatic Structure:
Thallus is mycelial type. Mycelium is highly branched, hyaline or coloured and septate. Mycelium is anastomosing forming a tuft of cottony mass.
Reproductive Structure:
Conidium:
The conidia are developed on conidiophores in chain. Conidiophores are branched, slender and the aerial branches are composed of 2 – 3 cells. Each conidiophore is terminated by sterigmata-arranged in a closely packed whorl (penicillin). Conidia are globose to elliptical in shape and have smooth or rough spiny wall.
Cleistothecium:
It is occasionally formed within the mycelial tufts. It is globose to ellipsoidal and devoid of any appendages, cleistothecium contains many asci.
Ascus:
Ascus is slender, tube-like with a row of ellipsoidal ascospores.
Ascospore:
Each ascus bears eight ascospores (Fig 3.11).
Identification:
Thallus mycelial type, hyphae septate, presence of sac-like ascus with endogenously formed ascospores, asexual reproduction by conidia.
CLASS: ASCOMYCETES (ASCOMYCOTINA)
Asci produced from ascogenous hyphae and enclosed in well-developed ascospores.
SUB CLASS: EUASOMYCETES
Asci scattered within the ascocarp, ascocarp cleistothecial type.
SERIES: PLECTOMYCETES
Asci scattered within the cleistothecium, ascocarp without appendages.
ORDER: EUROTIALES
Presence of sub-aerial ascocarp, mature conidia echinulate.
FAMILY: EUROTIACEA
Presence of branched conidiophore which is terminated by sterigmata arranged in a closely packed whorl or like a brush; conidia borne in chains, globose to elliptical in shape.
GENUS: PENICILLIUM
12. Peziza:
Somatic Structure:
Thallus is mycelial type. Mycelium is branched and septate. Mycelium mostly grows inside the substratum.
Reproductive Structure:
Ascocarp:
It is a saucer-shaped apothecium, usually up to 5 cm. or more in diameter. They are brightly coloured and sub-sessile. A T.S. through the ascocarp shows a mass of compact hyphae with hymenial layer composed of asci and paraphyses linking the cup on the inside. Paraphyses are slender, septate, un-branched with apices subclavate or clavate.
Ascus:
Asci are unitunicale, operculate, cylindrical to club-shaped, and bear eight ascospores in a row. The asci do not protrude beyond the general level of the hymenium at maturity.
Ascospore:
Ascospores are large, elliptical to spindle-shaped, hyaline to brownish in colour and with or without oil drops (Fig 3.12).
Identification:
Thallus mycelial type, mycelium septate. Presence of sac-like ascus with endogenously formed ascospores.
CLASS: ASCOMYCETES (ASCOMYCOTINA)
Asci produced from ascogenous hyphe, and enclosed in well-developed ascocarps.
SUB CLASS: EUASCOMYCETES
Ascocarp wide open, apothecial type.
SERIES: DISCOMYCETES
Ascocarp apothecial type, fleshy, and coloured; Asci uni-tunicate and operculate, ascospores elliptical.
ORDER: PEZIZALES
Apothecia cup-to saucer-shaped, more or less sessile; asci cylindrical paraphyses clavate, septate.
FAMILY: PEZIZACEAE
Asci do not protrude beyond the general level of the hymenium at maturity.
GENUS: PEZIZA
13. Aleukia:
Somatic Structure:
Thallus is composed of branched septate mycelium. Mycelium grows mostly inside the substratum.
Reproductive Structure:
Ascocarp:
It is bright orange saucer-shaped apothecia (about 8 – 10 cm in diameter). In T.S. through the ascocarp, there is a conspicuous hymenial layer on the upper surface, which is lined by ascus and paraphyses. Paraphyses are long, slender, septate, un-branched and possesses orange granules in the club-shaped tips.
Ascus:
It is long, slender and bears 8 ascospores in a row. It is uniturnate and operculate.
Ascospore:
It is coloured, elliptical and has a coarsely reticulated surface (Fig 3.13).
Identification:
Thallus mycelial type, mycelium septate, presence of ascus with ascospores.
CLASS: ASCOMYCETES (ASCOMYCOTINA)
Asci produced from ascogenous hyphae and enclosed in well-developed ascocarps.
SUB CLASS: EUASCOMYCETES
Asci wide open, apothecial type.
SERIES: DISCOMYCETES
Ascocarp apothecial type, fleshy, coloured, asci unitunicate and operculate, ascospore elliptical.
ORDER: PEZIZALES
Apothecia cup – saucer-shaped, asci cylindrical, paraphyses elevate and septate.
FAMILY: PEZIZACEAE
Paraphyses containing orange granules in the club-shaped tips, ascospore surface coarsely reticulated.
GENUS: ALEURIA
14. Ascobolus:
Somatic Structure:
Thallus is mycelial type. Mycelium is profusely branched and septate. Mycelium ramifies along the surface and subsurface of the substratum producing sex organs at maturity.
Reproductive Structure:
Ascocarp:
It is apothecial type. The apothecia are sessile or sub-stipitate, grow superficially or partially immersed in the substratum. They are soft, fleshy or waxy. A T.S. through the ascocarp shows pseudoparenchymatous hypothecium and concave hymenium, dotted with ends of the asci.
Ascus:
Asci are relatively broad, cylindrical or clavate, unitunicate and operculate. They are protruding at maturity from the hymenial layer. Each ascus bears 4-8 ascospores which are arranged in two rows.
Ascospore:
They are brownish to blackish at maturity and ellipsoidal to subglobose.
Paraphyses:
They are septate, hyaline, slender, adhering together or scarcely extended upwards (Fig 3.14).
Identification:
Thallus mycelial type, mycelium septate, presence of sac-like ascus with endogenously formed ascospores.
CLASS: ASCOMYCETES (ASCOMYCOTINA)
Asci produced from ascogenous hyphae, and enclosed in well-developed ascocarps.
SUB CLASS: EUASCOMYCETES
Ascocarp wide open, apothecial type.
SERIEIS: DISCOMYCETES
Ascocarp fleshy, coloured, Asci unitunicate and operculate; ascospores elliptical.
ORDER: PEZIZACES
Asci relatively broad and protrude above the general level of the hymenium as they mature, Ascospores commonly lie in two rows in the ascus.
FAMILY: ASCOBOLACEAE
Ascocarp cup-shaped, ascospores dark coloured, ellipsoidal to sub-globose.
GENUS: ASCOBOLUS
15. Geoglossum:
Somatic Structure:
Thallus is mycelial type, Mycelium is branched, septate, and lies close to the substratum from which ascocarps develop at maturity.
Reproductive Structure:
Ascocarp:
They are fleshy, erect, stipitate, clavate and black or brownish black. The terminal portion has hymenial covering and appears like a pileus or cup.
Ascus:
Asci are unitunicate and inoperculate. They are also cylindri-clavate and 8-spored. Ascus shows distinct pore or ascostome.
Ascospore:
These are “filiform” brown, multi-septate lying parallel to one another in the ascus.
Paraphyses:
Paraphyses are many, slender, septate, and slightly longer than asci and mostly with swollen tips (Fig 3.15).
Identification:
Thallus mycelial type, mycelium septate, presence of sac-like ascus with endogenously formed ascus.
CLASS: ASCOMYCETES (ASCOMYCOTINA)
Asci produced from ascogenous hyphae, and enclosed in well-developed ascocarp.
SUB CLASS: EUASCOMYCETES
Asci wide open apothecium type.
SERIES: DISCOMYCETES
Ascocarp long-stalked, club-shaped, pileate, hymenium located only on the upper tip part of ascocarp. Ascus unitunicate and inoperculate with an apical pore.
ORDER: HELOTIALES
Asci elongated, club-shaped, 8-sporcd; ascospore septate, filiform.
FAMILY: GEOGLOSSACEAE
Ascospore septate, lying parallel to one another in the ascus and brownish. Ascus with ascostome.
GENUS: GEOGLOSSUM
16. Phyllactinia:
Somatic Structure:
Thallus is mycelial type; Mycelium is branched and septate as found in the mesophyll layers of infected leaf.
Reproductive Structure:
Conidium:
The conidia are formed singly and are club-shaped.
Cleistothecium:
It bears two types of appendages, an equatorial group of radiating un-branched appendages with bulbous bases, and a crown of repeatedly branched appendages which secrete mucilage. Cleistothecium contains many asci.
Ascus:
Each ascus contains mostly two ascospores.
Ascospore:
It is somewhat oval in shape (Fig 3.16).
Identification:
Thallus mycelial type with septate mycelium, presence of sac like ascus with endogenously formed ascus.
CLASS: ASCOMYCETES (ASCOMYCOTINA)
Asci produced from ascogenous hyphae, and enclosed in well-developed ascocarp.
SUB CLASS: EUASCOMYCETES
Ascocarp perithecial or cleistothecial type, with or without regular ostiole.
SERIES: PYRENOMYCETES
Ascocarp cleistothecial type, without an ostiole.
ORDER: ERYSIPHALES
Cleistothecium more or less spherical, small and bearing appendages of simple to branched types in a manner characteristic to each genus.
FAMILY: ERYSIPHACEAE
Clestothecium having appendages with bulbous base and several asci.
GENUS: PHYLLACTINIA
17. Daldenia:
Somatic Structure:
Thallus is composed of branched, septate mycelium; hyphae are multinucleated. It is colonised on the surface layer of the host trees and forms a hemispherical brownish to black stromata (with ascocarps).
Reproductive Structure:
Stromata:
It is somewhat hemispherical to roundish, woody, and brownish to black body. In section, the stromata show a concentric zonation of alternating light and dark bands.
Perithecium (Ascocarp):
Perithecia develop in the outer layers of the stroma, each arising from a coiled archicarp. The perithecial wall is lined by ascogenous hyphae which are unusual in that there is often a considerable distance separating successive asci.
Ascus:
It is long, tubular and narrowed towards the basal part. It develops alternately on both sides of the ascogenous hyphae. The lower is the mature one while uppermost is the youngest one. Each ascus bears 8-ascosporcs.
Ascospore:
It is elliptical, dark-coloured and arranged in a row within the ascus (Fig 3.17).
IDENTIFICATION:
Thallus septate, mycelial type, presence of ascus with ascospores.
CLASS: ASCOMYCETES (ASCOMYCOTINA)
Asci produced from ascogenous hyphae and enclosed in well-developed ascocarps.
SUB CLASS: EUASCOMYCETES
Ascocarp typically a perithecium, asci inoperculate with an apical pure or slit.
SERIES: PYRENOMYCETES
Ascocarp borne in a stroma, dark coloured.
ORDER: SPHAERIALES
Perithecia embedded in stroma, stroma free from substratum.
FAMILY: XYLARIACEAE
Ascocarps develop in the outer layers of the stroma; ascus develops alternately on either side of the ascogenous hyphae; stromata black, hard and hemispherical.
GENUS: DALDINIA
18. Xylaria:
Somatic Structure:
Thallus is mycelial type; mycelium is branched, septate and mostly not visible outside the substratum. Vegetative mycelium produces ascocarp in a specialized thalloid cluster termed stromata.
Reproductive Structure:
Stromata:
The stromata is erect, more or less stalked, club-shaped to fusiform, blackish and leathery structure.
Ascocarp:
It is a perithecium and perithecia embedded in the sterile tissue of stromata except the apical portion. In mature stromata, ostioles of the perithecia are visible from outside with naked eye.
Ascus:
Asci are cylindrical, 8-spored and mixed with paraphyses. Each ascus is measuring 40 – 55 µm × 3 – 5 µm.
Ascospore:
Ascospores are uniseriate, fusiform, non-septate, dark brown to black coloured at maturity and measuring 4 – 8 pm × 2.5 – 4.5 pm (Fig 3.18).
Identification:
Thallus mycelial type, mycelium septate; presence of sac-like ascus with endogenously formed ascospores.
CLASS: ASCOMYCETES (ASCOMYCOTINA)
Asci developed from ascogenous hyphae and enclosed within an ascocarp.
SUB CLASS: EUASCOMYCETES
Ascocarp with differentiated wall and with or without a regular ostiole, asci arising as a fascicle at a common level in the ascocarp.
SERIES: PYRENOMYCETES
Ascocarp perithecial type and borne in a stromata, ascospores not thread like.
ORDER: SPHAERIALES
Perithecia embedded in stromata, stromata free from substratum.
FAMILY: XYLARIACEAE
Stromata erect simple, dark-coloured, perithecia with protruding tips. Asci cylindrical, 8-spored, ascospores, uniseriate, fusiform, non-septate, dark brown to black coloured.
GENUS: XYLARIA
19. Neurospora:
Somatic Structure:
The somatic mycelium is composed of rapidly growing pigmented hyphae. The colouration of hyphae orange to dark-brownish. The hyphal cells are septate and multi-nucleate.
Reproductive Structure:
Conidiophore:
The vegetative hyphae produce branched conidiophore.
Conidium:
The two types of conidia are formed on conidiophore – viz. large multinucleate macro-conidia and smaller uninucleate micro-conidia.
Ascocarp:
Ascocarp is perithecial type with narrow ostiole. Asci are tubular with 8 ascospores in a row.
Ascospore:
Ascospores are dark-brown and possess characteristic wall sculpturing in the form of ribs and views. (Fig 3.19).
Identification:
Thallus mycelial septate, presence of ascus and ascospores.
CLASS: ASCOMYCETES
Asci produced from ascogenous hyphae and enclosed in well-developed ascocaips.
SUB CLASS: EUASCOMYCETES
Ascocarp perithecial type, asci inoperculate.
SERIES: PYRENOMYCETES
Ascocarp borne in a dark-coloured stromata.
ORDER: SPHAERIALES
Perithecia free, ostiole without long hairs.
FAMILY: SORDARIACEAE
Ascospores dark t own and possesses characteristics wall sculpturing, in the form of ribs and veins.
GENUS: NEUROSPORA
20. Polyporus:
Somatic Structure:
Thallus is mycelial type. Mycelium is composed of septate, branched hyphae. Dikaryotic somatic mycelium produces characteristic basidiocarp visible to naked eye and lies above the substratum.
Reproductive Structure:
Basidiocarp:
The basidiocarp is reflexed, leathery and hard to brittle in texture. The upper surface is coloured, smooth with concentric zonation’s. The lower surface is with distinct pores of circular or angular outline. A T.S. through basidiocarp shows the presence of yellowish brown hymenial layer in the lower surface of basidiocarp. Above the hymenial layer, there is context zone which is composed of thick-walled, yellowish brown hyphae. The hymenial layer is lined with basidia around the pores.
Basidium:
They are hyaline, clavate, and tetrasterigmatic. Each sterigma bears a single hyaline oval basidiospore.
Basidiospore:
It is oval to ellipsoidal in shape and pale-coloured. (Fig 3.20).
Identification:
Myceliam septate, basidia and basidiospores present.
CLASS: BASIDIOMYCETES (BASIDIOMYCOTINA)
Basidia of holobasidia type.
SUB CLASS: HOMOBASIDIOMYCETES
Basidiocarp well-developed.
SERIES: HYMENOMYCETES
Hymenium unilateral or amphigenous, surface porose.
ORDER: APHYLLOPHORALES
Hymenium lining shallow or deep pore tubes.
FAMILY: POLYPORACEAE
Pores circular to angular, pore tubes sunk to an even depth into context forming a distinct stratum.
GENUS: POLYPORUS
21. Schizophyllum:
Somatic Structure:
Thallus is subterranean, branched mycelium type, mycelium septate with uni or bi-nucleate cytoplasm. Superficial mycelium produces fan-shaped basidiocarp with longitudinally split gills.
Reproductive Structure:
Basidiocarp:
It is distinct fan-shaped fruit body with longitudinally splitted gills on the lower side. In dry state, the gills curve inwards so that the hymenial surface is protected by a series of adjoining folds. The hymenial layers of the gills are lined with basidia.
Basidium:
The basidia is somewhat tubular, bulging towards the apex. There is characteristic sterigmata at the tip of the basidia.
Basidiospore:
It is ellipsoidal and bi-nucleate type. It is borne singly on each sterigmata (Fig 3.21).
Identification:
Mycelium branched and septate, presence of basidiocarp, basidium and basidiospore.
CLASS: BASIDIOMYCETES (BASIDIOMYCOTINA)
Basidia without any septum.
SUB CLASS: HOMOBASIDIOMYCETES
Basidiocarp present and gymnocarpus type.
SERIES: HYMENOMYCETES
Hymenium smooth (unfolded) and unilateral.
ORDER: APHYLLOPORALES
Fruit body sesile, fan-shaped and spreading type with gills on the lower surface.
FAMILY: SCHIZOPHYLLACEAE
Fan-shaped fruit body with longitudinally split gills.
GENUS: SCHIZOPHYLLUM
22. Stereum:
Somatic Structure:
Thallus is composed of branched, septate mycelium. Hyphae tuft produces basidiocarp as clusters of yellowish, fan-shaped, leathery brackets on various woody hosts.
Reproductive Structure:
Basidiocarp:
It is yellowish, fan-shaped and leathery bracket fungi. The hymenium smooth y (unfolded) and develops on one side of the fruit body. There are specialised laticiferous hyphae in the flesh which extend through to the hymenium.
Basidium:
The basidia are elongated, clubs shaped and terminated with four sterigmata bearing basidiospores.
Basidiospore:
The spores are ellipsoidal and pale orange coloured (Fig 3.22).
Identification:
Mycelium branched and septate, presence of basidiocarp, basidium and basidiospores.
CLASS: BASIDIOMYCETES (BASIDIOMYCOTINA)
Basidia of holobasidia type (i.e, without septum).
SUB CLASS: HOMOBASIDIOMYCETES
Basidiocarp present & gymnocarpous.
SERIES: HYMENOMYCETES
Hymenium smooth (unfolded) and unilateral.
ORDER: APHYLLOPORALES
Fruit body flattened, appressed and sessile.
FAMILY: STEREACEAE
Yellowish fan-shaped, leathery fruit body with specialised laticiferous hyphae extends up to hymenial layer.
GENUS: STEREUM
23. Clavaria:
Somatic Structure:
Thallus is composed of branched, septate, subterranean hyphae. Hyphae mass tufted together to form cylindrical or club-shaped fruit body.
Reproductive Structure:
Basidiocarp:
It is cylindrical to club-shaped, mostly un-branched clavarial type fruit body. The flesh is made up of thin-walled hyphae which lack clamp connections but become inflated and develop secondary septa. The hymenium which covers the whole surface of the fruit body usually consists of four-spored basidia.
Basidium:
It is somewhat tubular or club shaped. It bears four sterigmata on its apex.
Basidiospore:
It is roundish, smooth-walled and colourless type (Fig 3.23).
Identification:
Mycelium septate and branched, presence of basidium within basidiocarp.
CLASS: BASIDIOMYCETES (BASIDIOMYCOTINA)
Basidia aseptate simple type.
SUB CLASS: HOMOBASIDIOMYCETE
Gymnocarpic type of basidiocarp present.
SERIES: HYMENOMYCETES
Hymenium smooth (unfolded) unilateral to amphigenous.
ORDER: APHYLLOPHORALES
Basidiocarp cylindrical, fleshy clavarioid type.
FAMILY: CLAVARIACEAE
Hymenium covers the whole surface of fruit body, basidia four-spored and sterigmatic type.
GENUS: CLAVARIA
24. Agaricus:
Somatic Structure:
Thallus is mycelial type. Vegetative mycelium is composed of many interwoven, septate hyphae which ramify through the soil just beneath the surface. From dikaryotic mycelium, basidiocarp is developed in favourable seasons.
Reproductive Structure:
Basidiocarp:
It is soft, stipitate and lamellae or gills radiate from stipe. A mature basidiocarp is whitish in colour. The gills are formed by an extension of the hyphae of the pileus. A cross-section of a gill shows that the bulk of the tissue is composed of compact hyphae. The middle part of each gill is formed of hyphae coming down from the pileus, and following on the whole, a longitudinal course; their lateral branches, however, diverge towards the two surfaces.
This central tissue of the gill is called the trama. Towards the free surfaces, the cells of the diverging hyphae are shorter and more closely packed, forming the sub-hymenial layer, and beyond this again is the hymenial layer. The hymenial layer is composed of paraphyses and basidia with basidiospores on sterigmata.
Basidium:
It is club-shaped with four projecting sterigmata.
Basidiospore:
It is ellipsoidal and purple brown in colour. There are 2 – 4 spores formed exogenously per basidium. Spores are 6 – 8µm in length and 4 – 5µm in breadth (Fig 3.24).
Identification:
Mycelium branched and septate, presence of basidium with basidiospore.
CLASS: BASIDIOMYCETES (BASIDIOMYCOTINA)
Basidia aseptate.
SUB CLASS: HOMOBASIDIOMYCETES
Basidiocarp gymnocarpic type.
SERIES: HYMENOMYCETES
Hymenium covering lamellae on the lower surface of the pileus.
ORDER: AGARICALES
Basidiocarp fleshy, with radiating gills.
FAMILY: AGARIC ACEAE
Basidiospores purple brown, gills free.
GENUS: AGARICUS
25. Lycoperdon:
Somatic Structure:
Thallus is mycelial type with profusely branched hyphal mass. Hyphal tuft produces ball shaped basidiocarp.
Reproductive Structure:
Basidiocarp:
It is stalked with round, ball shaped peridium containing a number of gleba. The glebal chambers bear labyrinthine radiating hymenium. Hymenial layer is well developed and produces basidia around several minute cavities. Peridium is bilayered, outer layer ruptures but inner remaining intact.
Basidium:
The basidia are short, swollen and ovoid, each bearing four long sterigmata on which four basidiospores are developed.
Basidiospores:
They are globose with ornamented spore-wall (Fig 3.25).
Identification:
Mycelium branched and septate, presence of basidium and basidiospores.
CLASS: BASIDIOMYCETES (BASIDIOMYCOTINA)
Basidia aseptate type.
SUB CLASS: HOMOBASIDIOMYCETES
Mostly angiocarpic, basidiospore not ballistospores.
SERIES: GASTEROMYCETES
Gleba powdery with capillitium, hymenium well-developed.
ORDER: LYCOPERDALES
Peridium two-layered, outer layer ruptures, but inner remains intact.
FAMILY: LYCOPERDACEAE
Peridium (basidiocarp) round ball like, basidium short and swollen; basidiospores globose with wall ornamentation.
GENUS: LYCOPERDON
26. Cyathus:
Somatic Structure:
Thallus is mycelial type with profusely branched septate hyphae. Basidiocarps are developed from tufts of mycelia on the surface.
Reproductive Structure:
Basidiocarp:
It is deep inverted, cup or bell shaped with a flattened top. Each basidiocarp has a peridium with a number of stalked peridioles. Peridiole is lanticular and surrounded by a tunica and a dark-coloured cortex. The inner part of the peridiole is made of thin-walled hyphae in between which basidia are located.
Basidium:
It is club-shaped with 4 to 7 non-stergimatic basidiospores.
Basidiospore:
It is somewhat globose to ellipsoidal and somewhat coloured (Fig 3.26).
Identification:
Mycelium branched and septate, presence of basidium and basidiospores.
CLASS: BASIDIOMYCETES (BASIDIOMYCOTINA)
Basidium aseptate type.
SUB CLASS: HOMOBASIDIOMYCETES
Mostly angiocarpic basidiocarp.
SERIES: GASTEROMYCETALES
Basidiocarp cup-shaped with several tiny lenticular bodies i.e., pcridioles resembling a bird’s nest with eggs.
ORDER: NIDULARIALES
Epigeous basidiocarps with numerous pcridioles, each peridiole contains a tunica with basidia and basidiospores.
FAMILY: NIDULARIACEAE
Basidiocarp deep, inverted, bell shaped with a large solid mass of hyphae around its base; Basidiospore non-sterigmatic.
GENUS: CYATHUS
27. Auricularia:
Somatic Structure:
Thallus is composed of mycelia. Mycelium is made of branched and septate hyphae. Septum is incomplete.
Reproductive Structure:
Fruit Body:
This is an ear-shaped gelatinous structure. A T.S. through the fruit body shows a compactly arranged basidial layer forming hymenium.
Basidium:
Young basidium is bi-nucleate, club-shaped and compactly arranged in the hymenial layer. At maturity it becomes septate into upper epibasidium and lower hypobasidium.
Basidiospore:
It is septate & curved (Fig 3.27).
Identification:
Mycelium branched and septate, presence of basidium and basidiosporcs.
CLASS: BASIDIOMYCETES (BASIDIOMYCOTINA)
Basidium septate.
SUB CLASS: HETERO-BASIDIOMYCETES
Basidiocarp well-developed, jelly-like.
ORDER: TREMELLALES
Basidium transversely septate into lower hypobasidium and upper epibasidium.
FAMILY: AURICULARIACEAE
Fruit-body ear-shaped, gelatinous; basidiosporcs septate and curved.
GENUS: AURICULARIA
28. Dacryopinax:
Somatic Structure:
The vegetative mycelium is septate, subterranean, and profusely anastomosing. It produces basidiocarp on surface.
Reproductive Structure:
Basidiocarp:
They are stipitatc, pilcus obliquely capulale, spathulate, pelaloid, orange coloured and lobed. Stipe is covered with a layer of cylindrical, thick-walled hyphae. They are gelatinous when wet.
Hymenium:
It is unilateral, smooth, forming gill-like folds.
Basidium:
They are intermingled with sterile hyphae in the hymenium. They are forked like a tuning fork with basidiospores.
Basidiospore:
They are elliptical, pale yellowish and septate (Fig 3.28).
Identification:
Mycelium branched and septate, presence of basidium and basidiospores.
CLASS: BASIDIOMYCETES (BASIDIOMYCOTINA)
Basidia deeply lobed.
SUB CLASS: HETEROBASIDIOMYCETES
Basidiocarp well-developed.
ORDER: TREMELLALES
Basidiocarps gelatinous or waxy, spathulate, coralloid, yellow to orange coloured.
FAMILY: DACRYMYCETACEAE
Basidium tuning fork-like with basidiosporcs, basidiospore elliptical, septate and pale yellowish.
GENUS: DACRYOPINAX (GUEPINIA)
29. Puccinia:
Somatic Structure:
The somatic structure of the fungus consists of septate hyphae which penetrate the host tissues and cause destruction but do not become organized into structures of definite form. The hyphae branch inter-cellularly and produce small haustoria which penetrate the host cells.
Reproductive Structure:
The infected region of the host shows rusty streaks or postules. A T.S. through such region shows various kinds of ‘sorus’ structure viz. Uredosorus, Teleutosorus, Pycnidial and Aeciosorus stage. All the sori show the crust breaking through host epidermis due to pressure of the developing spores from inside the host tissue.
Uredosorus:
It is conspicuously present in the upper epidermis of the infected wheat leaf. There is presence of ruptured host epidermal layer with exposed, stalked, one-celled uredospores. Spores are elliptical and minutely echinulate.
Teleutosorus:
It is also seen on the upper surface of the infected wheat leaf. The sori are blackish with stalked, bi-celled spores exposed from the host tissue after rupture of the host epidermis as seen in T.S. through infected region. Cell-wall is smooth.
Pycnidial Stage:
It is seen in the upper leaf surface of infected barberry plants. In T.S. through the infected region of barberry leaf, there is presence of receptive hyphae exposed outside the leaf tissue through an ostiole.
Aeciosorus:
It is seen in the lower leaf surface of infected barberry leaf. The sori are just like inverted cups with angular sessile spores formed in chains (Fig 3.29).
Identification:
Mycelium branched and septate, presence of basidium and basidiospores.
CLASS BASIDIOMYCETES (BASIDIOMYCOTINA)
Basidia septate and developed from resting teleutospores.
SUB CLASS: HETEROBASIDIOMYCETES
Basidiocarp lacking.
ORDER: UREDINALES
Teleutospores stalked, and germinate by formation of promycelium externally.
FAMILY: PUCCINIACEAE
Polymorphic with various spore forms.
GENUS: PUCCINIA
30. Helminthosporium:
Somatic Structure:
Thallus is composed of well-developed mycelia of septate, branched hyphae. The hyphal cells are multinucleate.
Reproductive Structure:
It reproduces primarily by conidia borne on conidiophores.
Conidiophore:
It is dark-coloured, erect, branched and septate. Conidiophores are not united together to form sporodochia, synnemata, accrvulus or pycnidium.
Conidium:
Conidia are long, slender, three to several celled, tapering upward, hyaline to dark coloured and straight or slightly curved. Conidia are measuring 15 – 30 µm in length and 4 – 10 µm in breadth (Fig 3.30).
Identification:
Thallus mycelial type, mycelium branched and septate, sex organs and sexual reproduction absent.
CLASS: DEUTEROMYCETES (DEUTEROMYCOTINA)
Conidia not borne within a pycnidium or acervulus.
FORM-ORDER: MONILIALES
Conidia and conidiophores dark coloured, conidia one too many celled, conidiophorc erect and branched.
FORM-FAMILY: DEMATIACEAE
Conidia 3-7 celled with transverse septa, ellipsoidal to cylindrical, smooth-walled, straight or slightly curved.
FORM-GENUS: HELMINTHOSPORIUM
31. Epicoccum:
Somatic Structure:
Thallus is composed of branched septate mycelium. The mycelial cells are multi-nucleated.
Reproductive Structure:
There are no sex organs or sexual reproduction. There is only conidial mode of asexual reproduction.
Conidiophore or Conidial Fructifications:
The conidial fructifications take the form of cushion-shaped sporodochia, which are black or purplish-red in colour and covered with conidia.
Conidium:
Conidia are rough, wasted, segmented and brownish-red in colour (Fig 3.31).
Identification:
Thalius composed of branched and septate mycelium, sexual reproduction absent.
CLASS: DEUTEROMYCETES (DEUTEROMYCOTINA)
Conidia not borne within a pycnidium or acervulus.
FORM-ORDER: MONILIALES
Conidia and conidiophore dark coloured, conidia many-celled.
FORM-FAMILY: DEMATIACEAE
Conidia rough, wasted, segmented, brownish-red in colour and develop on cushion-shaped sporodochium.
FORM-GENUS: EPICOCCUM
32. Alternaria:
Somatic Structure:
Thalius is composed of mycelium. Mycelium is short, septate and branched. The hypal cells are multinucleate.
Reproductive Structure:
There is no sexual reproduction; only asexual mode of reproduction by conidia is noted.
Conidiophore:
Some short and dark-coloured somatic hyphae behave as conidiophores.
Conidium:
Conidia are produced at the tips of conidiophores in chains or singly. Conidia are large, elliptical to ovoid, dark coloured, several celled and beaked. The number of cells varies from 8-14 or even more. The septa dividing the spore into cells are both transverse and vertical. Conidia are measuring 20 – 100 µm in length (average 40 µm) and 5-16 µm in breadth (average 12 µm) (Fig 3.32).
Identification:
Mycelium branched and septate type, sex organs absent.
CLASS: DEUTEROMYCETES (DEUTEROMYCOTINA)
Conidia not borne within a pycnidium or acervulus.
FORM-ORDER: MONILIALES
Conidia and conidiophore dark coloured, conidia many-celled.
FORM–FAMILY: DEMATIACEAE
Conidia dark-coloured, septate; septum both transverse and longitudinal; conidia borne on conidiophores in long chains.
FORM-GENUS: ALTERNARIA
33. Curvularia:
Somatic Structure:
Thalius is composed of mycelium. Mycelium is septate and branched. Cells are multinucleate.
Reproductive Structure:
Sex organs and sexual reproduction is absent. Asexual reproduction is by conidia developed on conidiophores.
Conidiophores:
These are not united to form acervulus, or pyenidia or sporodochia. Conidiophore is dark coloured, brownish, branched, septate and bears conidia at the apex.
Conidium:
Conidia are 3-5 celled with transverse septa only and dark-coloured. These are typically bent or curved with 1-2 central cells distinctly larger and darker than the terminal cells. Conidia are measuring 16-30 pm in length and 6- 12 µm in breadth (Fig 3.33).
IDENTIFICATION:
Mycelium branched and septate type, absence of sex organs.
CLASS: DEUTEROMYCETES (DEUTEROMYCOTINA)
Conidia not borne within a pycnidium or acervulus.
FORM-ORDER: MONILIALES
Conidia and conidiophore dark coloured, conidia many-celled.
FORM-FAMILY: DEMATIACEAE
Conidia 3-5 celled with transverse septa, bent or curved with 1-2 of the central cells distinctly larger and darker than the terminal cells.
FORM-GENUS: CURVULARIA
34. Pyricularia:
Somatic Structure:
Thallus is composed of mycelium. Mycelium has branched, septate hyphae with multinucleate cells.
Reproductive Structure:
There is complete absence of sex organs and sexual reproduction. They produce conidia as a means of asexual reproduction.
Conidiophore:
It is hyaline, mostly free, branched, long, slender and septate. Conidial scars are present on the conidiophores.
Conidium:
Conidium is pyriform to ellipsoidal, 2-3 celled and hyaline. Conidia are developed either laterally or terminally on the conidiophores. (Fig 3.34).
Identification:
Mycelium branched and septate, sex organs absent.
CLASS: DEUTEROMYCETES (DEUTEROMYCOTINA)
Conidia not borne within a pycnidium or acervulus.
FORM-ORDER: MONILIALES
Conidia and conidiophores hyaline, conidia 2-3 celled, pyriform to ellipsoidal.
FORM-FAMILY: MONILIACEAE
Conidia lateral as well as apical, presence of conidial scars on the conidiophores.
FORM-GENUS: PYRICULARIA
35. Nigrospora:
Somatic Structure:
Thallus is composed of mycelium. Mycelium has branched and septate hyphae. The cells are multinucleate.
Reproductive Structure:
There are no sex organs or sexual reproduction. Asexual reproduction is by conidia formed on conidiophores.
Conidiophore:
Conidiophores are dark-coloured, erect, branched and short. They are also inflated below the tip exhibiting jar-shaped appearance.
Conidium:
Conidia are one-celled, globose to sub-spherical, smooth with distinct dark pigment. They are borne singly at the apex of short conidiophores (Fig 3.35).
Identification:
Mycelium branched and septate type; absence of sex organs.
CLASS: DEUTEROMYCETES (DEUTEROMYCOTINA)
Conidia not borne within a pycnidium or acervulus.
FORM-ORDER: MONILIALES
Conidia and conidiophore dark- coloured, conidia one – many celled.
FORM-FAMILY: DEMATIACEAE
Conidia one celled, globose to sub-spherical, dark pigmented, conidiophore short and tip inflated.
FORM-GENUS: NIGROSPORA