Ethno botanical knowledge is very ancient. It provides information regarding the traditional uses of plant wealth which can be utilized in integrated tribal development.
The ethno botanical studies throw light on certain unknown useful plants and new uses of many known plants which can be exploited for developing new sources for some plant products and agro based industries.
The term ethno botany was coined by J.W. Harshberger in 1895 to include the study of plants used by the primitive and aboriginal people. Though this discipline has existed for ages, ethno botany emerged as a distinct academic branch of natural science in twentieth century.
Definitions and Concepts:
Several definitions have been assigned to ethno botany but the basic concept has not changed much and the scope of ethno botany is increasing day by day.
According to Schultes (1962), ethno botany is defined as the study of the relationships between the people of a primitive society and plants.
Alcom (1984) states that ethno botany is the study of contextualized plant use.
Jain (1987) elaborated it as the total natural and traditional relationship and interaction between man and his surrounding plant wealth. Recently, Wickens (1990) defined ethno botany as the study of useful plants prior to commercial exploitation and eventful domestication. In fact, ethno botany is the first knowledge on plants which primitive and aboriginal people had acquired by sheer necessity, intuition, observation and experimentation in the forests.
It is now almost universally recognized as the total direct or natural relationship between man and plants and it includes the use of plants by both tribals and non-tribals without any implication of primitive or developed societies. Ethno botany is an interdisciplinary science and has relevance to sociology, anthropology, taxonomy, photochemistry, archaeology, ecology, agriculture, medicine, linguistics etc.
Today ethno botany has become an important and crucial area of research and development in resource management, sustainable utilization and conservation of biodiversity and socioeconomic development. Now the botanists, social scientists, anthropologists, the practitioners of indigenous medicines all over the world are engaged in the study of man-plant interactions in natural environment.
History of Development of Ethno botany:
Prior to coining of the term Ethno botany usage of plants by human being for various purposes found place in the ancient Sanskrit, Greek, Arabic literatures, ethnographies, travelogues etc. Some compilation works of repute are Foods and Drinks through Ages (2500 BC to 1937) (Anonymous, 1937), Arabian medicines and influences on the middle ages by Campbell (1926), Indo-Europian and Greek Legends by Halliday (1932), Foods and Drinks in ancient India by Ray (1933), The Economic plants of Bible by Moldenke (1954), Glossary of vegetable Drugs in Vaagbhatta by Godbole et al (1966), Plants used against cancer by Hartweh (1967-1971), Glossary of vegetable drugs in Vrihattrayi by Singh and Chunekar (1972), Economic plants of ancient North China as mentioned in Shih Ching by Keng (1974), Flora and Fauna in Sanskrit literature by Baneijee (1980), Plants of Quran by Farooqui (1989).
In the early nineteenth century the isolation of alkaloids such as morphine, quinine etc. as effective drugs from the herbs heralded new era in the use of plant products in modem medicines. The last thirty years or so witnessed a resurgence of interest in the traditional medicines, ethno medicines and drugs derived from plants all over the world.
The twentieth century has witnessed the emergence of ethno botany as a distinct academic branch of natural science. There has been an increasing interest in the scientific study of ethnic plants used by various indigenous peoples commonly designated as aboriginal natives, first people, original settlers, aadivasees, Vanya jaati (forest castes), Aadim Jaati (primitive castes), Jan Jaati (folk communities) and tribals. More than a dozen books and a thousand research publications on ethno botany have appeared in the world.
Different Aspects of Ethno botany:
Due to interdisciplinary nature and socio-economic impacts, the linkages of Ethno botany have proliferated. Ethno botany thus has relevance with problems of nutrition, health care and life support system, social customs, mythological association or faith in plants, cottage industries, economic upliftment, conservation of biodiversity and sustainable use of plant resources.
Ethnic Groups in India:
There are over 200 tribes, sub tribes, clans and some other ethnic groups in India. The following list provides state wise brief general information on some selected groups:
Andhra Pradesh:
Andh tribe Bagata (Bagatha), Chenchu, Hill Reddis, Jatapau, Kanmara (Konda), Khond (Konod), Kolam, Kollavaru, Konda-Dhora, Konda-Kapus, Konda-Reddis, Koya, Lambadis (Sugalis), Pardhan, Paroja, Saora, Valmiki, Yenadis, Yerakulas.
Bihar:
Asur, Bathudi, Bedia (Beria), Birhor, Gond, HO, Karmali, Kharia, Kherwar, Kora, Kurmi, Santhal, Sauriya Pahariya.
Jharkhand:
Baiga, Korwa, Lohra, Munda, Mahto, Mallar, Parhaya, Porja, Sauria Pahariya.
Chhatisgarh:
Kol (Munda), Majhi, Majhwar, Muria, Gond, Nagesia, Pao, Abujhmaria.
Gujarat:
Chaudhri (Chandhra), Ravalia, Damor, Dhodia, Dubla, Gamit, Kathodia, Katkuri, Kokna, Kunbi, Paradhi, Patelia, Rathawa, Vasavas.
Himachal Pradesh:
Bhat, Gaddi (Gadi), Johari, Kanaura.
Jammu & Kashmir:
Amchi (Laddakh), Bakarwala (Gujjars), Gujjar.
Karnataka:
Badaga (Nilgiri Hills), Koli (Dhor-Koli), Koya, Marati, Mullukurumban, Wynaadan-chetty, Yerava.
Kerala:
Panyan, Pathiyar, Pulayan, Uridavan-Gowdatu, Adiyan, Hill Pulaya, Ilava, Irula, Kadai, Kanikkar, Karimpalan, Kundu Vadian, Kurichya (Kurichchan), Kuruman, Kurumba, Malaarayan, Malakkaran, Malapantaram, Malavettivam, Malayar, Muthuvan.
Madhya Pradesh:
Panika Gond tribe, Abujhmaria, Agariya, Baiga (Panda), Bhaina, Bharias (Bhumia), Bhatra, Bhil, Bhumiya, Binjhal, Binghwar, Birhor, Dhurwa, Gudaba, Gond, Halwa, Hillmaria, Kamar (Kanwar), Khairwar, Khariya, Khond, Kol (Col), Korku, Mahto, Manjhi, Majhwar, Munda, Maria, Mina, Saharias, Saora (Sawara), Pao, Pardhan, Pardhi, Paroja, Nagesia, Oraon.
Maharashtra:
Bhil, Dhanka, Dhanwar, Dhodia, Dubla, Halba (Holwa), Kokna, Kolam, Kolimahadev, Koli Malhar, Korku, Maria, Pardhan, Pardhi, Pathawa, Thakur, Varii.
Orissa:
Bagata, Banjara, Bathudi, Bhatra, Bhuiya, Bhumia, Bhumij, Binjhal, Buijhwar, Gadaba, Gondaru, HO, Juang, Kharia, Kharivar, Kisan (Kuda), Kol, Kolha, Konda, Dhora, Kora, Koya Lodha, Mallar, Mirdha, Munda, Mundari, Porja Santal Sounti.
Rajasthan:
Bhil, Garasia, Kathodia, Katkari, Mina, Saharias.
Tamil Nadu:
Irula, Kadar, Kota, Kuruman, Kurumla, Malasar, Malayali, Mullukurumban, Panyan, Toda, Urali, Kurumba.
Uttar Pradesh:
Dusadh, Bhoxa (Bhoksa), Kol, Bhil, Kharwal, Tharu (Tippera), Bhotia, etc.
Uttaranchal:
Bhotia, Gangwal, Jodh, Jaunsari, Khaseas (different from Khasia, found in Kumaon), Tharu.
West Bengal:
Asur, Bathudi, Bhotia, Bhumij, Bishor, Chick Barak, Ho (Munda), Kharwar, Kora, Korwa, Lepcha, Lodha, Lohra, Mahali (Mahli), Male (Maler), Parhaya, Santhals, Sheipa, Toto.
Assam:
Bodo or Boro-Kachari, Chakma, Deori, Dimasa-Kachari, Garo, Hojong, Hmar, Hojai, Kachari including Sonwal, Khasi and Jaintia, Kuki, Barmons, Lalung (Bodorace), Mech, Mikir (Karbi) Mishings, Hill miris.
Arunachal Pradesh:
Abor (Adi), Aka (Hrusso), Apatani, Bagung, Bangni, Deuri, Digaru-Mishmi, Hill-miri, Idu- Mishmi, Kangbo, Khampti, Meyer, Miji, Miju, Mishing, Mishmi, Monpa, Na, Nishi, Nocte, Sherdukpen, Simpha, Sulung, Tagin, Tangsa, Tangkhul, Wanehu, Yabin.
Manipur:
Amol, Anal, Angami, Chira, Chothe, Gangte, Hmar, Kubui, Kacha Naga, Koirao, Koireng, Kom, Lamgang, Mao, Maram, Maring, Mizo, Monsang, Moyon, Paite, Purum, Ralte, Sabte’ Sema, Simte, Tangkhul, Thodou, Vaiphei and Zou.
Meghalaya:
The Garo, Khasi and Jaintia, Banai, Baro, Bhoi, Biate, Dalu, Hajong, Koch, Lyngam, Man, Rabha and War Jaintia.
Mizoram:
Miza (Hmar, Lushai, Paite, Pawi, Ralti), Lakheri, Kuki, Thode, Chakma, Chowngthu, Abzia (Mora), (Chawhto, Nagenta, Khanlthting, Khaingte, Pautu, Rawite, Renthlet, Tlau, Vongachhia, Zawngte).
Nagaland:
Nagas (16 scheduled tribes) including Angami, AO, Chakhesang, Chang, Chirr, Konyak, Khei, Mnungan, Lotha, Makware, Phom, Rengma, Sangtam, Sema, Tikhir, Yimchungrel, Zeliang’
Sikkim:
Bhotia and Lepcha.
Andman & Nicobar Island:
Andmanese, a small tribe of Negrito race of a few dozen persons, Jarawa (Jorawa), Nicobarese,
Onge Sentinelese, Shompen (Great Nicobar).
Importance of Ethno botany:
Ethno botanical knowledge is very ancient. It provides information regarding the traditional uses of plant wealth which can be utilized in integrated tribal development. The ethno botanical studies throw light on certain unknown useful plants and new uses of many known plants which can be exploited for developing new sources for some plant products and agro based industries such as, food processing, fibres and floss, cordage and basketry, extraction of edible and nonedible oils, gum, resins, tannin, dye extraction for the upliftment of tribal communities.
With the opening of new vistas of ethno botany, the scope of this natural science has now greatly increased both in terms of its theoretical contribution towards the understanding of plant- human relationship and the practical knowledge of tribal people in medicine, agriculture, health and industry.
The tribals depend mostly on forest flora for meeting their day to day needs and primary health care. They collect and utilize many wild plants for food, medicines, fibres, oils, gums, tannins and dyes from the ambient vegetation of their localities. The agricultural practices are not technological y advanced and most tribal groups in north-east part of India resort to shiffing cultivation widely known as jhum.
There are community land, clan land and individual land and the individual users of land have right of possessing inherited land. Jhuming or shifting cultivation involves felling of forest trees, clearing of shrubs and undergrowth in limited area and turning of soil for sowing crops.
The cleared land is used for agriculture for short time and when the fertility of the soil decreases, the area is abandoned by tribals and then they shift to new area and clear the forest vegetation for agricultural purpose. Jhuming has caused deforestation and soil erosion. Thus the existing land use and its unscientific management have aggravated the problems of soil erosion, floods, depletion of water resources and overall productivity.
Therefore, it has now become essential for botanists, agricultural scientists, anthropologists and government agencies to take stock of the problems of the tribal communities and make coordinated efforts in this direction. It requires proper management of settlements of tribal population because the migration of tribal communities compels them for shifting cultivation.
Tribals have knowledge about the utility of many plant species which are unknown to modem society, it is for the botanists to collect information regarding the traditional uses of such wild plants from them. Anthropologists have to deal with the cultural aspects of the life of tribals. The tribal culture is changing rapidly due to urbanization, rapid industrialization and changing pattern of life.
The medicinal plants are almost the exclusive source of drugs for the majority of world population even today. Plant products constitute approximately 25% of the total prescribed medicines even in most advanced countries like U.S.A. The record of use of herbal medicines in India is very old. India with diverse ethnic groups and rich biodiversity has a century old heritage of medicinal phototherapy for the treatment of various diseases and promotion of health. The branch of ethno botany which deals with the traditional systems of medicine or folk lore medicines is called medico-ethno botany.
Tribal communities utilize ethno medicinal plants for the treatment of diseases and disorders like diarrhea, dysentery, fever, headache, skin diseases, boils and blisters, rheumatism and gout, piles jaundice, ophthalmic diseases, toothache, bone fracture, snake bite, helminthic or worm infection, cuts and wounds, cough, cold, asthma, leprosy etc. The ethno medicinal data will serve as a useful source of information for the chemists, pharmacologists and practitioners of herbal medicines for detection and isolation of bioactive compounds used in modem medicines.
During the last few decades, a succession of the so called Wonder drugs e.g. reserpine quinine, ephedrine, cocaine, emetine, khelline, colchicine, digitoxin, artemisin, podophyllotoxin’ guguhpid, taxol etc. have been discovered from plants with rich ethno botanical lore in tribal societies. The isolation of these alkaloids from plants heralded a new era in the use of plant products in modem medicines.
The last thirty years or so witnessed a resurgence of interest in the traditional medicines and drugs obtained from plants all over the world. The tranquilizers rescinnamine and reserpine have been isolated from the roots of Rauvolffia serpentina which has been in use in India for more than thousand years in folk medicine for the treatment of snake bite insanity, epilepsy, fever and high blood pressure.
The native of Madagascar used Catharanthus roseus (Sadaa bahar) as an oral hypoglycemic agent. It yielded two important drugs; Vinblastine and Vincristine which are known to be effective in leukemia (blood cancer). Out of 120 active compounds currently isolated from higher plants and used in modem medicines 75% show a positive correlation between their modem therapeutic use and the traditional use of plants from which they are derived.
The efficacies of a number of phytopharmaceuticals derived from plants such as atropine (pupil dialator), berberin (used in gastrointestinal disorders), caffeine (a stimulant), digitoxin (a cardiac tonic), emetine (antiamoebic), ephedrine (anti asthmatic), morphine (analgesic), papain (protein digestant and anthelmintic), quinine (antimalarial), reserpine (tranquilizer), Vinblastine and Vincnstme (antileukaemic), Camptothecin, (antitumour), forskoline (hypotensive and antispasmodic) with rich folk-lore have been discovered.
The recent discovery of certain bioactive compounds such as artemisin (antimalarial drug from Artemisia annura), taxol (anticancer drug obtained from Taxus brevifolia), hypericine (antiviral from Hypericum perforatum), Gossypol (a male contraceptive from Gossypium spp), yue chukene (antifertility agent from Murraya penniculata triggered the interest in medicinal plants all over the world. Further efforts are being made with a view to discover potent herbal medicines based on ethhotherapeutics prevalent in tribal and aboriginal societies.
The primitive societies in India have been dependent on herbal medicines from the time immemorial. In fact, all traditional systems of medicine had their roots and origin in folk medicines or ethno medicines. The knowledge of ethno botany plays a vital role in the primary health care and economy of the tribals and aboriginal populations of our country and has potential for the discovery of new herbal drugs and new sources of nutraceuticals etc. The study of ethno botany provides valuable information’s to the scientists, planners and administrators for the preparation of action plan for the economic emancipation of tribals and Eco development of tribal areas.
Ethno botany and Conservation of Natural Resources:
Ethno botany has relevance with natural resources which provides raw materials for agroforestry. Ethno botanical studies have helped in revealing numerous germplasm-stocks of cultivated plants and vegetables. The tribals living in interior forests cultivate numerous vegetable crops.
Those crops are in cultivation for generations and thus they represent distinct genetic stocks adapted to local conditions. Some examples of such crops are Piper peepuloides which is used as condiment in Khasi Hills, Parkia roxburgii which is grown in country yards for fruit vegetable in North-Eastern states of India, Moghania vestita, a tuber crop of Khasi, Jaintia Hills, Hodgsonia heteroclita a cucurbit which is grown by Mizofribals for oil seeds and edible Kamel.
The worship of nature is prevalent in India and all forms of life are regarded as sacred in Hindu mythology. The most important patches of some rich and diverse forests are called sacred groves. The sacred groves are found mainly in Meghalaya and Sikkim where they are locally known as Lawkyntang and Lungchuk respectively. Khasis believe that groves are the abode of before it is lost forever.
Plants of Ethno botanical Importance:
The tribals and natural populations living in different parts of India use plant species of forest floras for food, fodder, fibres house building, fuels, medicines, beverages, oils, gums, resins, dyes, basketry, timber and wood works, musical instruments, fish poisons, religious ceremonies, narcotics etc. About 5000 plant species have been recorded so far which are used by tribals and aboriginal communities in different states. Some of the plants are used for particular purposes in more than one state while the others are used only in one state.
The ethnic plant wealth may be divided into the following groups on the basis of their uses:
(1) Wild edible plants (food plants)
(2) Ethno medicinal plants
(3) Fibre and floss yielding plants
(4) Oil yielding plants
(5) Dye yielding plants
(6) Gum and resin yielding plants
(7) Ethno toxic and fish poison plants
(8) Timber and wood work
(9) Tannin yielding plants
(10) Plants used in basketry and brooms. Some less known ethnic plants which are used by tribals for food, ethno medicine and narcotic purposes are listed here.
Tribal Food and Food Plants:
Tribals grow a number of cereals, millets, pulses, fruits, vegetables etc. They are largely dependent on wild leafy vegetables, tubers, fruit, seeds etc. Rice is the staple food for the majority of tribals. They also eat a variety of meat of wild and domestic animals, the most important being the meat of cow, wild buffaloes (called Mithuns in Nagaland), pigs, fowls, fishes, dogs and some other wild animals as well as snakes and birds.
The tribals of Arunanchal Pradesh, Meghalaya and Nagaland take meat of dog on special occasions. They are fond of hunting and fishing. For fishing they have developed various types of fish traps made up of bamboo and canes, rods and hooks. Sometimes they put some poisonous plants in the rivers and streams to make the fishes unconscious. They use sticky seeds of some plants e.g. Loranthus scurulla to trap the birds. Tribals in North-east and Southern parts of India are fond of crabs. Some plants are used for making arrow poison.
Rice beer or millet beer is an integral part of tribal’s life. The beverages, tea and local beer account for one quarter to one half of the daily calorie intake of the inhabitants. Taking beer is essential on all occasions. It is offered in wooden pots, bowls or bamboo tumblers. Chewing betel nut is very common.
The ethnobotamcal studies conducted in various regions of India have brought to light hundreds of less known plants of food value which are utilized by tribals. Some of the important and less known edible plants used by tribals are listed here as under (Table 20.1):
